Essay on Analysis of F.r Leavis quot;The Great...

Within F.R Leavis The Great Tradition, Leavis presents clear and consistent criticism. Although his points are definitely biased, and I dont agree with all the statements he makes, it is evident in this work that Leavis is indeed great at articulating and embodying the authors that he both envies and adores so much. Within The Great Tradition, Leavis is purposefully evaluative of certain writers. It is clear that he holds individuality, and the appreciation of life, high on his list of criteria for great writers. This is evident when Leavis writes the major novelists who count in the same way as the major poets, in the sense that they not only change the possibilities of the art for practitioners and readers, but that they†¦show more content†¦Although I do agree with Leavis that Jane Austen, George Elliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad and D.H. Lawrence are truly great writers, it is clear that they are not the only great writers that exist in the world, unlike Leavis tells us we ought to believe. Leavis writes It passes as fact (in spite of the printed evidence) that I pronounced Milton negligible, dismiss the Romantics, and hold that, since Donne, there is no poet we need bother about except Hopkins and Eliot. (601). This statement is possibly made out of pure arrogance and sheer aba ndonment of any sort of common sense. In my opinion, it is important to study and read many authors from many different backgrounds and perspectives. Reading enables us to become more educated on different cultures and social backgrounds as well as different time periods. To provide an example of this importance, it is obvious that there is a great difference in writing style and historical background in Shakespeares Sonnet 29 compared to In Flanders Fields by John McCrae. Arent they both important in different ways? How could someone say that In Flanderss Fields is not an important poem to read when it touched so many lives and still today serves as a reminder of those who died in the First World War? Leavis Im sure would not argue

Нealthcare And Health Care Policies Example For Students

Ð ealthcare And Health Care Policies I have learned a plethora of critical and important information regarding healthcare and health care policies in the United States and in the world while I took UC 105 and 106 as part of the Health Sciences Scholars Program. One of the topics that stuck out to me the most during the lecture was the topic of constrained choice. For me, this topic really resonated with me since I understood some of the constrained choices and decisions that many Americans have to go through on a daily basis. I also saw the inequalities and disparities that caused the constrained choices which is based on a person’s socioeconomic status, availability of resources, the environment of where a person lives, and the social health policies and laws created by the government. Similar to how other Americans have constrained choices, my family and I were economically disadvantaged since it was only my mother supporting me, my younger sister, and my younger brother. We will write a custom essay on Ð ealthcare And Health Care Policies specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Throughout my entire life, my family and I would never have any of the luxurious items or extra cash laying around. It was always a tight money budget since my mother was the only source of income by working at a job in human service at a beauty parlor. For my family, the amount of income my mom made defined us as a family of lower-socioeconomic status, the working class. Having low income has affected the ways that I have lived my life as well as my health. For me, I did not have a choice to go to a private school where I could have received more resourced and a better education since my family lacked the money. The area that we lived in was not very affluent, so the number of taxes and funding were lower compared to more affluent districts in other areas. This has an effect on all of the social and health policies as well as the wealth distributed over certain regions of the city. Since the area that we lived in was underfunded, the programs offered through the hospitals and through the city lacked the proper resources to help people with their health problems. For example, there was a lack of money to fund programs such as educating pregnant woman of how to best take care of themselves during pregnancy as well as offer childcare services and addiction programs. This has a ripple effect on the other aspects of life for people with constrained choices. Since my family did not have much money, the availability of the type of food and resource we can afford diminished. We had fast food and takes out more often since it was relatively cheaper and less time consuming compared to going out to buy groceries and taking the time to cook our meals in our busy lives. Also, my mother works long hours every week. She worked almost seventy hours a week to provide for our family. This has a negative effect on her body and health overall. For this, she has developed really high blood pressure, and she developed hyperthyroidism. She was sent to the the emergency room multiple times without any secure form of health insurance which further strained the choices she could make with the money and resources available to her and to our family. Our situation is an example of how many Americans have to make certain choices based on the available options even though the options are not ideal. Living through these experiences, the constrained choice have created health disparities for many lower income families. As future health care professionals, it is very critical to know that many people do not have equal access to resources that could benefit their health. The community and social policies currently being uphold in their areas have major effects on the health. If a person comes from a lower-income and less affluent area, that person will have higher risks of having health problems compared to a person from a higher-income and more affluent area. Telling a person to change their lifestyle habits as well as the resources they have is very difficult to do. Instead, as future health care professionals, we have to identify some of these health care disparities caused by these constrained choices. Working with the pharmaceutical companies as well as the health care policy makers would help improve the situation that the health disparities through the constrained choices of lower-income families. .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae , .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .postImageUrl , .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae , .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae:hover , .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae:visited , .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae:active { border:0!important; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae:active , .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uf172f76e94249868e0ecc4aca92335ae:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: International Health Care PoliciesAnother thing that I have learned that has surprised and shocked me while taking UC 105/106 as part of the Health Sciences Scholars program is that there were many shocking and horrifying undercover experiments in the United States. Also, learning some of the Nazi experiments during the World War 2 era helped reinforce the gruesome history and the need to reform the ethics of the lab research and the experiments. In modern day, the health care system that I know have always tried to avoid harming their patients in hospitals and clinics or else the patients and their family might be able to sue for the damages done. The physicians are under the hippocratic oath that they will do no harm to their patients. This is a widespread belief of the hippocratic oath although it never appears anywhere on that actual official document of the oath. I have always thought that physicians were never allowed to harm their patients. This brought up the whole issue of medical ethics. Medical ethics was brought up during many of the horrible experiments around the world. Many examples include the Tuskegee Syphilis Trial, the Canadian Force Sterilization, and the Baltimore Lead Paint Study. Learning about all of the horrible experiments and the results of those experiments has made me questioned about the current state and conditions of medical ethics today. Are the medical ethics that we are upholding today being violated? Are there any undercover lab experiments and trials that the government and scientists are doing without our knowledge? Even today, I still think it is very important to know the ethics behind experimenting and researching. There are many examples that in the gray area of ethics. Is it okay to have people drink the polluted water in Flint, Michigan? Does the government intervene and do something about it or are we going to let it be undercover for the citizens to suffer the prolong health effects? Even though there are defined medical ethics presented to physicians and scientists, these ethics are still being violated and covered up, which brings this issue to be critical. Although the health care system has definitely improved greatly over the last decade or so in the United States and around the world, they are still major problems that could be addressed. One of the most pressing issue in health and health care is the lack of affordable and accessible health care insurances and plans. As one of the most developed countries in the world, I think it is quite embarrassing that we as a country have such a high rate of uninsured Americans compared to other countries who have global healthcare insurance and access to all of its citizens. Millions of people in the United States still does not have a form of health care coverage or insurance. This is proven to be a dire problem since Americans who do not have insurance cannot afford a basic check-up at the doctors to see if they are growing properly and that they are in good health. I find this to be a critical issue since my mother is an American citizen who was uninsured. Her workplace did not offer her a healthcare plan as part of their job benefit and affording a single health care plan and insurance is very expensive. Since my mother was not insured, she always avoided going to the doctors since she would have to pay each time she goes as well as pay for the medications. This is proven to be an awful situation for her as her health worsen from the lack of doctor check-ups as well as the improper medications to treat her health conditions. She has overworked herself causing her blood pressure to be extremely high which did not help with her hyperthyroidism condition. She fainted at her workplace and was rushed to the hospital. She luckily recovered but since she did not have any health insurance or coverage, her health care bill was ridiculously high. She was thousands of dollars in debt, and since we fell below the average income of a typical American famil y, paying off this debt was a difficult task. .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a , .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .postImageUrl , .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a , .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a:hover , .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a:visited , .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a:active { border:0!important; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a:active , .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u9b4ca6079c996e96db5fc1be7ee93f5a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Health Care Policy And PoliticsLike my mother, I know there are million of other Americans who are in the same position. They are not able to afford health care coverage which leads to their health problems to escalate for those who are uninsured. This is a major issue currently because some of the social and health care policies are jeopardizing the health care coverage of millions of Americans when the current government is trying to repeal Obamacare, a successful plan that has helped more American to have health insurance and coverage. The effects of not having everyone insured will create huge health disparities among certain minority groups which creates an inequality that will be repeated. I feel like if the physicians, the government, and the policy-makers work together to provide health care coverage for everyone, the amount of health issues plaguing our nations would decrease since everyone now can be checked by a doctor to see if their health is fine or not. Reflecting back on this year, I am glad I got the opportunity to take this class and be part of the Health Sciences Scholars Program. I have learned a lot in this class and have grown personally and professionally.

History - Federalist versus Anti-Federalist

History - Federalist versus Anti-Federalist The Constitution of the United States is a remarkable document that was put together by our Founding Fathers and several existing documents including the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence. While the Constitution has provided America with freedom and rights, there were critical issues, concerns and numerous debates. The government has gone through a number of changes in order to become the system that it is today and the Founding Fathers played a large role in drafting and ratifying a new constitution for the United Stated (Ketcham, 1981).In September of 1787 the Constitutional Convention meeting held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania had finally came to a close after critical Federalist debates between had taken place in determining balancing power between State and Federal Governments.One of the most debated issues during the formation of the American government was how much power the federal government should have or how much liberty the states should have.T he Articles of Conferderation, ratified in 1781. ...Two Founding Fathers who represented opposing sides were Alexander Hamilton, who argued for a strong national government and James Madison and John Jay in the Federalist Papers. Now, Thomas Jefferson on the other hand was in favor of a weaker national government where more power instead rested with the states rather than the government. While Thomas Jefferson didnt hang around for the convention, he paid close attention to the ratification debates with Anti-Federalists, George Mason and Patrick Henry.Even though the Anti-Federalist had lost the ratification, they did come close to winning and their opinions represent an important contribution to the American political tradition (Ketcham, 1981). The Anti-Federalist lost the ratification because they did not present a clear and convincing explanation of the threats within the Constitutional plan that stood between the Articles of Confederation. The Anti-Federalist recognized the plan was powerless in fulfilling the...

Early Life Theories - Panspermia Theory

Early Life Theories - Panspermia Theory The origin of life on Earth is still somewhat of a mystery. Many different theories have been proposed, and there is no known consensus on which one is correct. Although the Primordial Soup Theory was proven to be most likely incorrect, other theories are still considered, such as hydrothermal vents and the Panspermia Theory. Panspermia: Seeds Everywhere The word Panspermia comes from the Greek language and means seeds everywhere. The seeds, in this case, would not only be the building blocks of life, such as amino acids and monosaccharides, but also small extremophile organisms. The theory states that these seeds were dispersed everywhere from outer space and most likely came from meteor impacts. It has been proven through meteor remnants and craters on Earth that early Earth endured innumerable meteor strikes due to a lack of an atmosphere that could burn the up upon entry. Greek Philosopher Anaxagoras This theory was actually first mentioned by Greek Philosopher Anaxagoras around 500 BC. The next mention of the idea that life came from outer space wasnt until the late 1700s when Benoit de Maillet described the seeds being rained down to the oceans from the heavens. It wasnt until later in the 1800s when the theory really started to pick up steam. Several scientists, including Lord Kelvin, implied that life came to Earth on stones from another world which began life on Earth. In 1973, Leslie Orgel and Nobel prize winner Francis Crick published the idea of directed panspermia, meaning an advanced life form sent life to Earth to fulfill a purpose. The Theory is Still Supported Today The Panspermia Theory is still supported today by several influential scientists, such as Stephen Hawking. This theory of early life is one of the reasons Hawking urges more space exploration. It is also a point of interest for many organizations trying to contact intelligent life on other planets. While it may be hard to imagine these hitchhikers of life riding along at top speed through outer space, it is actually something that happens quite often. Most proponents of the Panspermia hypothesis actually believe the precursors to life were what was actually brought to the surface of the earth on the high-speed meteors that were constantly striking the infant planet. These precursors, or building blocks, of life, are organic molecules that could be used to make the first very primitive cells. Certain types of carbohydrates and lipids would have been necessary to form life. Amino acids and parts of nucleic acids would also be necessary for life to form.   Meteors that fall to the earth today are always analyzed for these sorts of organic molecules as a clue to how the Panspermia hypothesis may have worked. Amino acids are common on these meteors that make it through todays atmosphere. Since amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, if they originally came to Earth on meteors, they could then congregate in the oceans to make simple proteins and enzymes that would be instrumental in putting together the first, very primitive, prokaryotic cells.

Paul Delvauxs Paintings Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Paul Delvauxs Paintings - Essay Example He quickly distinguished himself as an aspiring musician and took his music classes avidly. Like many aspiring artists, Delvaux entry into the world of art was met with determined criticism from his parents, who wished him to pursue a separate career (Carels & Deun, 2004). It was partly due to this parental pressure that the young man occasionally ventured into other subjects but remained a good reader all the while. The books and subjects he read would later influence the kind of art he chose at an early age. Jule Verne’s fictional writings and Homer were his favorite publications at that young age (Carels & Deun, 2004). His parent’s opposition to an artistic career saw him study architecture at an academy in Brussels. At a much older age, he changed his academic course and switched to art under the tutelage of Constant Montald and another artist; Jean Delville (Carels & Deun, 2004). During the inaugural years of his artistic career, the young artist concentrated large ly on naturalistic art. His penchant at the time was painting of landscapes as he saw them within his geographical surroundings. Later on, his art would change from pure surrealism to pick up aspects of expressionists after he encountered the influences of Constant Permeke and another artist by the name Gustave De Smet (Carels & Deun, 2004). These two artists introduced him into the art of surrealism. An artistic encounter with the figure of Venus would later offer him a new motif that dominated his art for much of his later artistic career. From these influences, he developed a strong taste of nudist art. The artist is well known for his remarkable capacity for juxtaposition. In his art, the most ordinary of things would be rendered in peculiarly different forms. The capacity to engage the aspects of naturalism, surrealism, metaphysics, and expressionism brought him out as one of the most accomplished artists of his time. His art continue to influence critical reviews and appraisal s in Belgium especially, and much of Europe and America generally. One of Delvaux’s most famous paintings is â€Å"The Great Sirens.† It is generally considered as the best landmark of his nudist art as compared to others. â€Å"The Great Sirens† also shows the most telling effects of the influences Delvaux received from Rene Magritte and Giorgio de Chirico. Magritte infused into the artistic substance of Delvaux the elements of surrealism. This influence elevated the Belgian’s art to some higher representations that captured multiple influences in ways that appeared to operate above the normal expectations. On the other hand, deChirico’s art influenced Delvaux into the representations of metaphysical and proto-surrealistic paintings. The art of incongruous juxtaposition that expresses itself in the art of Delvaux borrows heavily from the art of Magritte. In the â€Å"The Great Sirens,† these influences are evident from the dramatic way in w hich the pictures are rendered and in the juxtaposition that follows. It is appropriate to determine some of the influences that contribute to the artistic shock that presents them in this painting. The women are brought about as erotic, shameless, and threatening to the male ego and power (Delvaux, 1947). They are no longer presented as weak and conquered, as they are ready to use their feminine qualities and physique to conquer the domineering power of the men in the society in which they leave. By presenting these pictures as uniquely feminine, the painter brings out the fact that he is an essential feminist. He goes against the dominant tradition where patriarchal artists seek to use the physical attributes of women to display their power. In a way, therefore â€Å"The Great Sirens† might be interpreted as an allegory of feminine redemption,

Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 5

Proposal - Essay Example But, these people will be able to fulfil this role if they have the requisite knowledge about the diet principles and the requirements of nutrients. The healthy diet includes solid as well as liquid food items. In order to compete with European and American teams the Saudi footballers will have to make good use of healthy food items. While carrying out a study for Business Insights, Siddika Jaffer (2008), find that the overall market for sports and energy drinks has seen immense growth in the European and US markets and this growth is expected to continue at a rate of about 5 percent till 2011. The study points out that the during the period 2001-06, the Spanish market for sports and energy drinks has witnessed the highest percentage of growth pegged at more than 13 percent. Nutrients help in sustaining the long term needs of training and short-term needs of competition (Hassapidou et al, 2003). It is believed that formal training with proper dietary intervention leads to a number of advantages in enhancing the performance of an athlete in aspects like physical performance, better protection against injuries, maintaining a stable stamina, and proper muscular growth. Therefore having updated information regarding the dietary principles suitable for sportspersons provides an edge to the coach. This study is an effort to analyse the knowledge level amongst the football players and the coaches in Saudi Arabia in general. Literature review not only helps in going through the findings and conclusions of earlier researchers, it also helps in shaping a direction for the present research activity as well, because the researcher tends to get fair idea about the areas requiring particular focus. In this case also we are bound to come across a number of research papers about the necessity and usage of rich energy diets for sportspersons in general. It will our endeavour to go through some

Plato and Nietzsche on Authority Essay Example for Free

Plato and Nietzsche on Authority Essay Nietzsche and Plato have many similarities in their discussion of political philosophy. Both dislike and hold contempt for democracy, and both favour a meritocratically chosen elite holding authority. There are even many similarities between the characteristics that they require in the group. However, there are differences too. Nietzsche doesnt outline a strict theory of authority, as Plato does. His governmental system, although it hardly is, could be interpreted, and has been, in many different ways. And, although both of them think that they have justified their authority, there have been several discussions on to whether they are, and in what society they would be relevant. These discussions are perhaps at the core of finding the key differences and usable elements of their philosophies. The notion of authority can be discussed in two main senses. For one, it can be used to discuss a person or groups right to rule. The other is when you talk of someone being an authority on a topic. Both of these involve the subordination of personal judgement to that of another and most political theorists would consider this subordination to be binding. One of the main problems is if you should surrender your own personal judgement independent of the content of the authoritys ideas both Nietzsche and Plato would say that one should, as their leaders are both an authority on a topic and have the right to rule. When authority comes from knowledge, it doesnt necessarily mean that the authority has power, for example as in a teacher trying to control a class at a school. However, in politics, an effective authority must be allied to power. If the authority is recognised, then it is de facto authority. If it is justified, then it is de jure authority, and most de facto authorities claim that they are both de facto and de jure. Plato and Nietzsche both argue for a de facto authority (sensibly who wants to impose an authority that is ignored?) and they both outline what they believe to be justification for this authority. This justification is at the centre of much of political philosophy, as it is important to discover if the justification works. Authority differs, therefore, from justified power, as justified power in itself does not involve subordination of judgement if theyre not recognised, then they cannot require that people follow their rule. Legitimacy is also an issue. In a democratic state, electoral fraud would lead to a leader being illegitimate: there is also no guaranteed way to prevent electoral fraud. However, as Nietzsche and Plato are both anti-democracy, illegitimacy this way would obviously be an issue. However, if either of their desired leaders were to seize power (either by force or just accidentally falling into power), there would be definite issues with people who didnt believe their justification. In this case, their authority could be considered illegitimate. Plato, especially in Republic, gives epistemology and metaphysics substantial roles in political philosophy. In Platos ideally just city, philosophers would gain power, or, at the very least, rulers would have to engage sincerely and adequately in philosophy. Plato also suggests a rigorous training program for his philosopher-kings they must have their emotions properly trained. Would this lack of emotion make for a good authority? Many would say that you cannot be emotional about your leadership because then your judgement would be swayed by too many subjective factors. However, the thought of a leader without emotion is particularly daunting how would they know what would affect the population, and more importantly how? Emotions are an important part of human life, and a great leader would have to understand (and this would usually be best understood by feeling the emotions oneself) human life to be effective. Plato argues that this would come from knowledge of the Forms, the per fect example of something there is one for every notion that exists on earth. The Form of tables, the Form of emotions, or even the Form of drinks are all said to exist. The meticulous training includes imparting knowledge about these forms and prepares the mind for this abstract thought by rigorously training the rulers in mathematics. The philosophers knowledge of the Forms would include knowledge of the Form of Good, which is the keystone of the system, and therefore is essential for order. If one takes the Forms to be a true (or even just realistic) idea then it is sensible for a leader to understand what the true notion of good is. If one knows good then one can use this mould to create a good system, which is surely more reliable than basing it on subjective ideas. The Forms are like a religion, which makes Platos system almost a theocracy (unlike the authority of Nietzsche) and this has been implemented as a political system before. In the past, however, people have become dissatisfied with the religion that they are forced to agree with. Atheism is becoming more and more accepted than before, as many new scientific discoveries render God less and less plausible, and as Nietzsche would put it, less useful as a concept. All this taken into account means that knowledge of the Forms probably wouldnt be useful for an authority (especially in a modern era), but it is not necessarily a bad idea for an authority figure to be well versed in philosophy. Philosophy introduces abstract thought (like Plato suggested) and calls for knowledge in logic. Abstract thought is useful when trying to find theories that fit with the real world where would physics and chemistry be without abstract thought concerning the atom? Another key question on the subject of religion was raised by Nietzsche. Is there anything that can be taken from religion, even if one wasnt to be imposing religion onto a state, as Plato does? Nietzsche believes that, although religion in itself is too dogmatic and God is useless as a concept, the passion behind religion is admirable, and would be one of the key characteristics of his new philosophers. Nietzsches new philosopher, as opposed to the more traditional concept of Plato, would be more like a contemporary artist than a contemporary philosopher. They would not even necessarily be searching for the truth. These new philosophers are the Ubermensch and coupled with this think outside the box attitude, they have a strong Will to Power, which makes them the perfect leader. They crave solitude, when independence is not necessary or normally preferred, which Nietzsche says is an example of exercising the will to power over oneself he also calls it a privilege of the strong. Plato agrees, and says that the philosopher follows truth alone. These new philosopher overmen dont follow the rules that are currently put in place by Christianity and slave morality like self-sacrifice for ones neighbour and self-denial. Similarly to Platos philosopher kings, these Ubermensch/new philosophers are uncommitted to anyone or anything, and they are not afraid to break the boundaries currently put in place by political authorities. - Of course, these philosophers that are in power must be significantly different from those that we call philosophers today. Nietzsche says that every great philosophy so far has been just the personal confession of its author meaning that philosophy is subjective and just based and what you want to believe and think. Here, social class, education, religion, parents and friends all play a part in what you write down as your philosophy. As previously mentioned, Nietzsche wants to use people who a free thinkers, someone that yearns to be set free from the crowd. Plato agrees when Adeimantus says that people who study philosophy too long become weird, roguish creatures, useless to society philosophers arent currently as useful to politics as they should be, according to both theories of authority. There are other examples of when a more metaphysical concept has been implemented by an authority. Religious people often hold God (rather than the Forms or the free thinkers of Nietzsche) as the ultimate authority, and although we have discussed briefly the problems with making this the law of a state (as in theocracy), this religious politics may not be a bad idea. For example, if those with authority look to God for advice on political matters, it gives them a chance to think about and receive information (either from God, or simply thinking it through in prayer, or even through the morals in religious scripture this neednt be a discussion of religious philosophy) about what may be the better decision. Obviously, if we take the Forms to be incorrect (as most people do), then God would be the ultimate good, which means that those that understand God would have to hold the power, rather than philosophers. Of course, there has to be a line drawn between looking to God (or another spiritual being) for advice and forcing views on other people. Plato would argue that the people dont know what is good for them, and so should trust whatever the authority says, but this isnt a realistic idea for people of today, who have fought for free speech for centuries. Nietzsche would both agree and disagree with this. He would agree in that the Ubermensch are the only ones that can be truly rulers, and that the vast majority of people dont know whats good for them. However, he wouldnt necessarily say that this was a bad thing, as if slaves are happy being slaves, then they have less of the Will to Power and therefore do (in a sense) know whats good for themselves personally. Of course, even if we convert Platos theory on Authority to be based around any religious ideals then it is still an argument against democracy in that if an Authority must have something to be a good ruler, there is no point in asking the untrained masses to vote for a good ruler. They wouldnt, presumably, be able to understand the Forms, or God, sufficiently enough to choose an Authority (or even understand that there could be an Authority) that would do the job to Platos standards. Another Platos philosopher kings rely on their knowledge of the Forms to provide their moral code, which is then implemented upon the Republic. The Form of the Good provides the perfect moral code upon which to base the real (material) moral code. This is one of the main reasons why Plato requires his rulers to have philosophical knowledge they need to know the moral code upon which to base their own. Nietzsche, on the other hand, believes that everything is subjective, based on experience and opinion of the individual. This means that his philosopher supermen dont need to implement a moral code; their only morals are the will to power. Even if this seems like a good idea within the context of Platos Republic, this Authority wouldnt make sense in todays politics. For example, there are many various types of religion, and within those religions, thousands of sub-sets. This means that, even without using the Forms, that this theocracy idea couldnt be imposed without some force (the implications of which will be discussed later). Secondly, using one type of morality based on dogmatic principles wouldnt hold sway for a similar reason there would be complaints (or even uprisings) about the lack of freedoms this gives. These are practical reasons for the change not to take place. However, there are implications even if this were to be used in an ideal society (where all good ideas based upon an interchangeable ultimate value would be easily implemented with consequences). Its not ideal, from many viewpoints, to force everyone to hold the same viewpoint (although Plato would argue that there is only one true viewpoint) and Nietzsches subjectivism would agree. Human nature would be indulged in an ideal world, if happiness was the ultimate value, and this calls for freedom to be a central concept of any Authority. Freedom to vote, to those in the UK, seems to be a basic human right with few restrictions. This means that democracy would seem to be part of an ideal society in pursuit of happiness. There are good reasons for this we all have subjective opinions (as Nietzsche rightly said) and these need to be reflected in the way we are governed by an authority. For example, in most other situations, we would consult someone who we believe to be an authority on a subject. If we are ill, we talk to a doctor. If we want to dine out, we will consult a restaurant critic. Therefore, it seems sensible to leave governmental decisions to those with political knowledge. However, the teaching of medicine is universally taught in a similar (if not identical) way there is little room for a subjective opinion. The more subjective something is, the less we can trust it. The restaurant critic, for example, will sway our views either way, but it probably wont be the final judgment. The reason it will still sway us is that there is still good and bad food. Politics, however, is different. Everything in politics is completely dependant on moral views, upbringing, teaching, the media and even the way your brain works. We cannot trust teachers of politics to be completely impartial when teaching the political theories. Teachers of religious studies are usually biased towards Christianity in this country, and politics teachers would probably be the same. People wouldnt be happy with simply going along with what the politicians say thats why people have died for democracy. Everyone has different views, and democracy is the best way to incorporate all (or most) of these when creating a government. There is, however, a problem with the amount of democracy to allow. The current system in the United Kingdom is for people to vote in a representative that they trust to make similar decisions to those that they would choose. Of course, the representative cannot be trusted to have exactly the same views, and therefore, should the vote be more open? If people were allowed to vote on any topic that interests them, what would happen? The government may be forced to ban petrol cars. The main question is, is it really democratic once elected? The system in the UK is not fully democratic. Plato would argue that the only way for a government to make truly right decisions (and therefore decisions that the public would have to agree with theres nothing to disagree with if something is right) is for them to know good be trained in abstract thought and philosophy. So democracy, to be worthwhile, perhaps needs to be more democratic, or Plato and Nietzsche have the right idea. Jeremy Bentham famously associated utilitarianism with democracy he believed that one vote per person would lead the the greatest good for the greatest number. This is because human nature naturally tends to lead us towards pleasure, as opposed to pain. And, because everyone has this same desire towards pleasure, democracy would effectively allow all of us to vote for pleasure, so to speak. This seems like a more feasible idea than relying on someone who, although in theory doesnt have personal interests, probably would be biased. Humans do tend to avoid pain, so an open vote would lead us away from pain. Change Nietzsche quotes on asceticism! Another important feature that both Nietzsche and Plato mention in their political philosophy is asceticism. Nietzsche mentions that the tests of self-deprivation that (Christians mostly) pervade Western society are bad wherever religious neurosis has appeared on earth, we find it tied up with three dangerous dietary rules: isolation, fasting, and sexual abstinence. However, further on in Beyond Good and Evil, he seemingly changes his mind. He advocates appropriating, injuring, overpowering those who are foreign and weaker; oppression, harshness, forcing ones own forms on others, incorporation, and at the very least, at the very mildest, exploitation which would surely induce suffering, especially when considered with a modern mind. He then goes on to say in 270 that Profound suffering ennobles; it separates. Even earlier on, in 40, he says that everything deep loves a mask surely a sign of internal suffering is being hidden? Presumably, deep is a good thing, as his description of his new philosophers necessitates that they are deep creatures. Plato, on the other hand, consistently advocates an ascetic lifestyle, especially when he is discussing his people in authority. They do not care for pleasures of this world: those of body or money. We can apply the same thoughts to asceticism as we can to Platos philosopher without emotion. If a leader doesnt care for pleasures of this world, then surely they cannot truly understand the pleasures of this world whether they are philosophers or not. If the authority was supposed to be similar to a Christian God, then it would be omnipotent, and therefore know and understand everything a priori. However, neither Plato nor Nietzsche advocates a Christian God as the best authority and neither of them suggests that the leader would be omnipotent. Therefore, it would make sense to disagree with asceticism on the grounds that it would cause the perfect leader to have a lack of understanding about typical human pleasures. It will be evident by now that Nietzsche (and Plato, to an extent) advocates an oligarchy (albeit meritocratic) both place small groups of people in charge of the general public. They both have similar attitudes towards democracy, as well. Plato dismisses democracy he thinks that liberty (557b) and equality (558c) lead to a break down of all the essential characteristics of a philosopher-king. Evidently the very existence of a ruling class of philosopher kings is controversial to the central themes of democracy. liberty leads to a lack of self-discipline. He doesnt believe in equality as some humans are superior. Nietzsche has a similar idea he mentions that Every enhancement in the type man up to this point has been the work of an aristocratic society, which shows that he believes that an aristocratic society will further mans development. Although Plato seems to advocate a meritocratic oligarchy (although he wouldnt admit it), he doesnt recommend that his republic be based around money (also known as a plutocracy) where a small group of rich people, similar to an aristocracy, rule the lower classes. This would lead to an economic inequality between classes, which would create an environment which leads to and breeds beggars and thieves. It could also lead to a revolution between the rich and the poor. Another argument against plutocracies occurs in chapter VIII, Socrates says that wealth doesnt allow a pilot to navigate a ship, so wealth wouldnt allow an authority to rule a republic. Money seems to be a key problem with many theories of authority. It is often said that money corrupts people, so it could be argued that in any governmental system where the authority gets paid or is chosen because of its wealth would be corrupt. However, it is not practical to impose this most people associate power with money either subconsciously or consciously. The authority, even if chosen democratically, would want some reward for having to rule a country, and money is the usual and probably most desired reward. In The Prince, Machiavelli justified using force to gain and retain political power, and it, therefore, justifies any actions simply done to gain power. This may, of course, have influenced Nietzsche, who also advocates gaining power by force. In 257, he mentions that every noble (not in the typical sense) civilisation has descended from barbarians, and that any decent (and therefore aristocratic) society requires slavery. Plato agrees with this, he says that the most majestic society and man is tyranny and the tyrant. Although there are sections in The Republic where Plato seems to advocate violence, such as 465 where he says Arguments can be settled with fists, there and then, as they arise, when he discusses his perfect State he seems to believe that it will just come into being. For example, in 502, he mentions that the only way it could come about by a philosopher wiping the slate of human habits and society clean. This could, obviously, mean the annihilation of the human race, but it seems to mean just cleansing the mind of incorrect ideas. He then acknowledges that putting it into practice would be difficult which it wouldnt, if they just forced people into obeying, which makes it seem like he hopes that one day, it will happen, but he is not going to force it. More examples of this anti-force opinion occur when he is discussing the types of government that he is against timarchy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny. He explains that oligarchy and tyranny can only come about by using force private wealth means that people feel that they have the right to keep the populace down by force. Democracy, he believes, causes excessive liberty, which then causes its own downfall. From this comes a tyrant, who is not afraid of murder and stirs up war. Another point he makes is that it is simply never right to harm anyone at any time which obviously is a specific way of showing his feelings on violence and this would apply to taking a country or state by force. Of course, this helps to illustrate a key difference between power and authority. For example, we all have in us the physical strength to murder (although, obviously, we dont usually have the mental state to want to do it) and this is power in one sense just like a dictator killing thousands of people because he can. However, an authority differs from this in that it would be classed as capital punishment. So what is the difference? Why does an authority have the right and others do not? If an authority is de jure (with justification) although it may be difficult for some to think when murder would be justified then all its actions could be seen as justified by proxy, as if an authority is justified, the decisions they make would be somehow related to the reason they are in power. For example, Plato justifies his philosopher-kings by saying that they are the only ones who can have true knowledge of the forms, and, if this is true, then they know the Form of Good. So, if they murdered someone, then it would be based upon something theyve seen in the innate Form of Good. The balance between freedom and authority comes into question when discussing issues like the above. Even though the authority may be justified on its own terms, it may not be necessarily right. Using Plato as an example again, the theory of the Forms is now commonly thought to be incorrect, and people wouldnt accept that as a reason to allow capital punishment. Even if there was a truly irrefutable source of justification, people will always have differing views, especially on such an important topic. So how does an authority find the perfect balance between power and authority? Authoritarianism is a social theory popular with dictators and the like. It supports, at the totalitarian end of the spectrum, the total subjection of personal opinions (usually through oppression) and enforcing strict control upon those that live in the state. It often involves what many political philosophies would see as an erosion of civil rights and freedoms lack of a private life and suppression of religious beliefs, for example. Obviously, there are differing degrees of authoritarianism and even the most democratic and liberal state must exercise its authority upon those within the state, but finding the right balance is important. Both Nietzsche and Plato advocate the subordination of those under the command of the philosophers, which means that their theories would be less easily accepted today than they would have been in the past. As previously mentioned, people have fought (and still are, particularly from the 20th century until today) for their civil rights and this includes their freedom, which means that an authoritarian government, like those advocated by Nietzsche and Plato, would be more difficult to impose today than ever before. This calls into question obedience to the state. The more democratic the state, the more free speech and dissent is usually allowed. However, as neither Plato nor Nietzsche advocate democracy, it is required to understand when disobedience would be allowed. Of course, both would say that their state would be obedient at all times, but this is unrealistic. In a theocracy, the state executes the law of God. In Plato, God can be easily exchanged for The Forms. However, what would happen if people were to disagree with Platos theory, as many do? Would they be justified in breaking the law of something that they dont believe in? A true authority would mean that the law would either be unbreakable morally or that their authority was so powerful that people could not, or would not, break the law. However, as has been seen, it is difficult to see where Plato or Nietzsches arguments would lead to such an authority. Although disobedience of the law is obviously illegal, sometimes mass disobedience, in the UK at least, can lead to a change of law. Plato would disagree that this is even possible. If duty to the State is accepted, it is still possible to find examples when the law can be disobeyed. As the duty of the state is to protect the people (and, for my example, this includes their freedom), state infringement of this freedom could cause the person involve to break the law to retrieve their liberty. Another issue arises (in the case of democratic government and perhaps in Nietzsches subjective government) in that if the majority part enforces a law, should the minority who didnt vote be forced to follow it? It wasnt their choice for that law to be enforced. Of course, with major things that infringe on human rights, like murder and domestic violence, should be universally enforced, but what about poll tax and property protection? If it was enforced by a government of authority that imposed itself, this could be an issue in that it is unfair to enforce laws that almost all of the population disagree with. In some cases, it could be considered immoral, but Plato would disagree, as the Rulers are following the only moral code that exists. Platos philosopher kings rely on their knowledge of the Forms to provide their moral code, which is then implemented upon the republic. The Form of the Good provides the perfect moral code upon which to base the real (material) moral code. This is one of the main reasons why Plato requires his rulers to have philosophical knowledge they need to know the moral code upon which to base their own. Nietzsche, however, believes that everything is subjective, based on experience and opinion of the individual. This means that his philosopher supermen dont need to implement a moral code; as previously mentioned, their only moral is the will to power. Nietzsche never specifically argues for a government system like we have today. For example, he mentions that his free spirits should be in power, but also says that religion should be allowed for the common people. This shows, slightly patronisingly, that he is not expecting the common people to understand the rulers (much like the lower classes today are note expected to understand politics) which is obviously a very sweeping judgement, and could be considered as harsh and pro-Big Brighter in support of a tyrannical state. Although Nietzsche did support tyrant, he did appreciate the subjectivism of morals and opinion, and was not advocating forcing ones views upon others (unlike Hitler). His lack of respect for democracy is not the only thing that calls into question modern government. He doesnt even specify if there should be a (totalitarian?) leader at all, merely that the free spirits would hold power as such. His appreciation of subjectivity means that a leader would not strictly work: all views are different, so no leader would be truly right. The free spirit seems merely to be an authority to show others with the will to power what they can achieve. Conclusion Both of these systems involve elements of the totalitarian about them. Plato seems to advocate both communism in monetary matters and lifestyle and the complete opposite when it comes to defining differences between peoples. He argues strongly for different classes of people, like Nietzsche, and for an authority that is placed in power with no choice. Its not as bad as it seems, if one agrees with the justification of the argument however, it would be a long struggle for people to accept it. Nietzsche, on the other hand, has often been blamed for inspiring Hitler (which is untrue, as Nietzsche despised racism and anti-Semitism), and it is easy to see why, as he advocates gaining authority by force, relishes in aristocratic barbarianism, and believes that there are levels of people. This means that their theories on authority arent very practical, and neither de jure or de facto, particularly by modern standards. A preferable system, therefore, would be a mix of Platos equality for women, Nietzsches appreciation for the artistic nature, and (include other philosophers). Of course, its unforeseeable to be able to find a perfect authority, one who is justified, true, moral and recognised. As Nietzsche said, all philosophy to date has been personal confession if this is true (which it seems likely to be), then there will never be a perfect authority, justified and recognised by all.